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Here's the original on English: Grammar-translation, Direct method and Audiolingualism Many of the seeds which have grown into present-day methodology were sown in debates between more and less formal attitudes to language, and crucially, the place of the students’ first language in the classroom. Before the nineteenth century many formal language learners were scholars who studied rules of grammar and consulted lists of foreign words in dictionaries (though, of course, countless migrants and traders picked up new languages in other ways, too). But in the nineteenth century moves were made to bring foreign-language learning into school curriculums, and so something more was needed. This gave rise to the Grammar-translation method (or rather series of methods). Typically, Grammar-translation methods did exactly what they said. Students were given explanations of individual points of grammar, and then they were given sentences which exemplified these points. These sentences had to be translated from the target language (L2) back to the students’ first language (L1) and vice versa. A number of features of the Grammar-translation method are worth commenting on. In the first place, language was treated at the level of the sentence only, with little study, certainly at the early stages, of longer texts. Secondly, there was little if any consideration of the spoken language. And thirdly accuracy was considered to be a necessity. The Direct method, which arrived at the end of the nineteenth century, was the product of a reform movement which was reacting to the restrictions of Grammar-translation. Translation was abandoned in favour of the teacher and the students speaking together, relating the grammatical forms they were studying to objects and pictures, etc. in order to establish their meaning. The sentence was still the main object of interest, and accuracy was all important. Crucially (because of the influence this has had for many years since), it was considered vitally important that only the target language should be used in the classroom. This may have been a reaction against incessant translation, but, allied to the increased numbers of monolingual native speakers who started, in the twentieth century, to travel the world teaching English, it created a powerful prejudice against the presence of the L1 in language lessons. As we shall see in Chapter 7D when we discuss monolingual, bilingual and multilingual classes, this position has shifted dramatically in the last few years, but for many decades L2-only methods were promoted all over the world. When behaviourist accounts of language learning became popular in the 1920s and 1930s (see Chapter 3, A2), the Direct method morphed, especially in the USA, into the Audiolingual method. Using the stimulus-response-reinforcement model, it attempted, through a continuous process of such positive reinforcement, to engender good habits in language learners. Audiolingualism relied heavily on drills to form these habits; substitution was built into these drills so that, in small steps, the student was constantly learning and, moreover, was shielded from the possibility of making mistakes by the design of the drill. The following example shows a typical Audiolingual drill: teacher: There's a cup on the table... repeat students: There's a cup on the table. teacher: Spoon. students: There's a spoon on the table. teacher: Book. students: There's a book on the table. teacher: On the chair. students: There's a book on the chair. etc. Much Audiolingual teaching stayed at the sentence level, and there was little placing of language in any kind of real-life context. A premium was still placed on accuracy; indeed Audiolingual methodology does its best to banish mistakes completely. The purpose was habit-formation through constant repetition of correct utterances, encouraged and supported by positive reinforcement.