e. 'few moments/minutes' with no article) sounds exceedingly odd-- the sentences you have chosen at least are quite unnatural.
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I think the difference is that "few" is almost negative (too little), and "a few" is more positive, it is still a less amount of something, but is something, on the contrary "few" alone is almost nothing.
First, it's a common mistake by non-native English speakers to not understand the difference between "few" and "a few". "Few" means "not very many", where as "a few" means "some". The former is limiting: it implies "less than you'd expect". For example:
Few people on our team understand the situation.
The above means that not very many people understand the situation. It